Chapter X : A NEW TREATMENT FOR HYPERTENSION
High blood pressure is a major cause of morbidity and mortality due to its association with coronary heart disease, cerebrovascular disease and kidney disease. The extent of damage to the target organs (i.e., heart, brain and kidneys) determines the prognosis. According to W.H.O, 15 million people have a stroke each year and 5 million die and 5 million suffer from permanent disabilities. C.V.A ( cerebro-vascular accident) is rare in people under 40 and if it occurs, it is mainly due to hypertension. Hypertension and smoking are the two main modifiable risk factors. Four out of ten people who died from a stroke could have been saved if their blood pressure had been controlled. Recent guidelines clearly indicate that the treatment of isolated systolic hypertension is as important as that of systolic-diastolic hypertension.
The different levels of blood pressure, according to WHO:
High: Ts:> or = 140 mm Hg and Td:> or = 90 mmHg
at risk (prehypertension): Ts: 120-139 mm Hg and Td: 80-89 mm Hg
Normal: Ts <120 mm Hg and Td: <80 to 80 mm Hg
Blood pressure is determined by 3 basic elements:
Left ventricular ejection volume, Heart rate and peripheral vascular resistance
PA = VES x frc x RVP
This is equal to cardiac output x peripheral vascular resistance.
The role of the sympathetic nervous system in high blood pressure :
In 1988: Vargas HM, Brezenoff HE. Suppression of hypertension during chronic reduction of cerebral acetylcholine in spontaneously hypertensive rats. Journal of Hypertension. 1988; 6 (9): 739–745.
Experiments were conducted to determine the effects of chronic depletion of brain acetylcholine (ACh) on the development and maintenance of hypertension in spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHR). Synthesis of brain ACh was inhibited by chronic infusion of hemicholinium-3 (HC-3) into the cerebral ventricles, and systolic blood pressure was monitored by tail cuff occlusion. In 5-week-old SHR, infusion of HC-3 (0.25 micrograms/h) suppressed development of hypertension when compared to saline-infused control SHR during the 21 days of infusion (140 versus 190 mm Hg on day 21). Hypothalamic and brain-stem ACh during this period was reduced by 50% and by 60-75%, respectively. In 18-week-old SHR with established hypertension, HC-3 (0.25 and 0.5 micrograms/h) reduced systolic blood pressure by 35-40 mmHg for 8 days, after which pressures returned to control hypertensive levels (191 mmHg) by day 14. The increase in blood pressure was accompanied by recovery of hypothalamic ACh levels to 75% of control. The specificity and physiological effectiveness of HC-3 was shown by its ability to inhibit the centrally mediated pressor response to physostigmine but not to oxotremorine. Infusion of HC-3 did not affect body growth, water consumption, body temperature or gross behavior. From this study, it can be concluded that brain cholinergic neurons are an important component in the development and the maintenance of hypertension in the SHR.
In 1991: Julius S. Deregulation of the autonomic nervous system in human hypertension. American Journal of Cardiology. 1991; 67 (10): 3B – 7B
An increased sympathetic drive combined with decreased parasympathetic inhibition is found in patients with borderline hypertension, who characteristically have rapid heart rates, high cardiac output and relatively normal vascular resistance (hyperkinetic state). In established hypertension, cardiac output is normal, vascular resistance is elevated and signs of increased sympathetic drive are absent. Apparently hemodynamics and sympathetic drive change during hypertension. The mechanism of the hemodynamic transition in the course of hypertension is well understood. Cardiac output returns from elevated to normal values as beta-adrenergic receptors down-regulate and stroke volume decreases (due to decreased cardiac compliance). The high blood pressure induces vascular hypertrophy, which in turn leads to increased vascular resistance. The mechanism of the change of sympathetic tone from elevated in borderline hypertension to apparently normal in established hypertension can best be explained within the conceptual framework of the “blood-pressure-seeking” properties of the brain. In hypertension, the central nervous system seeks to maintain systemic blood pressure at the higher level. As hypertension advances and vascular hypertrophy develops, arterioles become hyperresponsive to vasoconstriction. At this point, less sympathetic drive is needed to maintain pressure-elevating vasoconstriction, and the central sympathetic drive is down-regulated. The etiology of increased sympathetic drive in hypertension remains unresolved. Subjects with increased sympathetic drive are also usually overweight and have elevated levels of insulin, cholesterol and triglycerides, as well as decreased high-density lipoproteins. Future research must focus on the link between coronary risk factors and sympathetic overactivity in hypertension.
In 2012 Kumagai H & co : Importance of rostral ventrolateral medulla neurons in determining efferent sympathetic nerve activity and blood pressure.
Accentuated sympathetic nerve activity (SNA) is a risk factor for cardiovascular events. In this review, we investigate our working hypothesis that potentiated activity of neurons in the rostral ventrolateral medulla (RVLM) is the primary cause of experimental and essential hypertension. Over the past decade, we have examined how RVLM neurons regulate peripheral SNA, how the sympathetic and renin-angiotensin systems are correlated and how the sympathetic system can be suppressed to prevent cardiovascular events in patients. Based on results of whole-cell patch-clamp studies, we report that angiotensin II (Ang II) potentiated the activity of RVLM neurons, a sympathetic nervous center, whereas Ang II receptor blocker (ARB) reduced RVLM activities. Our optical imaging demonstrated that a longitudinal rostrocaudal column, including the RVLM and the caudal end of ventrolateral medulla, acts as a sympathetic center. By organizing and analyzing these data, we hope to develop therapies for reducing SNA in our patients. Recently, 2-year depressor effects were obtained by a single procedure of renal nerve ablation in patients with essential hypertension. The ablation injured not only the efferent renal sympathetic nerves but also the afferent renal nerves and led to reduced activities of the hypothalamus, RVLM neurons and efferent systemic sympathetic nerves. These clinical results stress the importance of the RVLM neurons in blood pressure regulation. We expect renal nerve ablation to be an effective treatment for congestive heart failure and chronic kidney disease, such as diabetic nephropathy.
In 2012 Kazushi Tsuda : Renin–Angiotensin System and Sympathetic Neurotransmitter Release in the Central Nervous System of Hypertension.
Many Studies suggest that changes in sympathetic nerve activity in the central nervous system might have a crucial role in blood pressure control. The present paper discusses evidence in support of the concept that the brain renin-angiotensin system (RAS) might be linked to sympathetic nerve activity in hypertension. The amount of neurotransmitter release from sympathetic nerve endings can be regulated by presynaptic receptors located on nerve terminals. It has been proposed that alterations in sympathetic nervous activity in the central nervous system of hypertension might be partially due to abnormalities in presynaptic modulation of neurotransmitter release. Recent evidence indicates that all components of the RAS have been identified in the brain. It has been proposed that the brain RAS may actively participate in the modulation of neurotransmitter release and influence the central sympathetic outflow to the periphery. This paper summarizes the results of studies to evaluate the possible relationship between the brain RAS and sympathetic neurotransmitter release in the central nervous system of hypertension.
How the nervous system works?
Acute control of baroreceptors: The vasomotor center includes the nucleus of the solitarius tract in the dorsal medulla (integration of baroreceptors), the rostral part of the ventral medulla (pressure region) and other centers in the Pons and midbrain. Arterial baroreceptors respond to distension of the vascular wall by increasing the afferent impulse activity. This in turn decreases the efferent sympathetic activity and increases vagal tone. The net effect is bradycardia and vasodilation.

Consequences of prolonged sympathetic hyperactivity :

(correction)Renin-angiotensin system:
The renin protease cleaves angiotensin to give the inactive peptide angiotensin I. The latter is converted into an active octapeptide, angiotensin II by the angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE). Although the renin-angiotensin system is widespread in the body, the main source of renin is the juxtaglomerular apparatus of the kidney. This device detects the renal perfusion pressure and the sodium concentration in the distal tubular fluid. In addition, renin release is stimulated by adrenergic beta and decreased by alpha adrenergic stimulation. High concentrations of angiotensin II suppress renin secretion via a negative feedback loop. Angiotensin II acts on specific angiotensin receptors AT1 and AT2, causing a contraction of the smooth muscles and the release of aldosterone, prostacyclins and catecholamines. The renin – angiotensin – aldosterone system plays an important role in controlling blood pressure, including sodium balance.

In addition, renin release is stimulated by the sympathetic nervous system.

High concentrations of angiotensin II suppress renin secretion via a negative feedback loop. Angiotensin II acts on specific angiotensin receptors AT1 and AT2, causing a contraction of the smooth muscles and the release of aldosterone, prostacyclins and catecholamines. The renin – angiotensin – aldosterone system plays an important role in controlling blood pressure, including sodium balance.

Adrenal steroids:
Mineralocorticoids and glucocorticoids increase blood pressure. This effect is mediated by sodium and water retention (mineralocorticoids) or increased vascular reactivity (glucocorticoids). In addition, glucocorticoids and mineralocorticoids increase vascular tone by regulating receptors for pressive hormones such as angiotensin II. Renomedullary vasodepression The renomedullary interstitial cells, located mainly in the renal papilla, secrete an inactive substance medullipine I. This lipid is transformed in the liver into medullipine II. This substance exerts a prolonged hypotensive effect, possibly by direct vasodilation, inhibition of the sympathetic drive in response to hypotension and a diuretic action. It is assumed that the activity of the renomedullary system is controlled by the renal medullary blood flow. Sodium and water excretion Sodium and water retention is associated with an increase in blood pressure. It is postulated that sodium, via the sodium-calcium exchange mechanism, causes an increase in intracellular calcium in the vascular smooth muscle resulting in an increase in vascular tone. The main cause of sodium and water retention may be an abnormal relationship between sodium pressure and excretion resulting from decreased renal blood flow, reduced nephronic mass, and increased angiotensin or mineralocorticoids

ADH ( vasopressin):
Vasopressin is a small hormone, synthesized in the hypothalamus and released into the circulation from the posterior lob of hypophysis. Although historically named as a result of its potent vasopressor actions, these actions only occur when plasma vasopressin is present in the plasma in supraphysiological concentrations. The most important action of vasopressin is its antidiuretic action on the collecting ducts of the kidney. This leads to a decrease in renal free water clearance, concentration of urine, and a reduction in urine volume. The net effect is the reabsorption of water into the blood, which, along with thirst-generated water intake, leads to normalization of plasma osmolality.Regulation of vasopressin secretion and action thus represents a key homeostatic process which protects the osmotic milieu of the body, allowing normal cellular function.
Synthesis :
Vasopressin is most abundantly produced in magnocellular neurosecretory neurons in the supraoptic and paraventricular (PVN) nuclei, transported to terminals in the neurohypophysis, and released into the general circulation. Vasopressin production is also found in parvocellular neurons in the PVN and vasopressinn produced in these neurons is transported to terminals in the external layer of the median eminence, from which it is released into the hypophysial portal system.

Release and feedback controle :
Vasopressin release is regulated by osmoreceptors in the hypothalamus (OVLT, SFO), which are exquisitely sensitive to changes in plasma osmolality of as little as 1% to 2%. Under hyperosmolar conditions, osmoreceptor stimulation leads to vasopressin release and stimulation of thirst. These two mechanisms result in increased water intake and retention. Vasopressin release is also regulated by baroreceptors in the carotid sinus and aortic arch, under conditions of hypovolemia, these receptors stimulate vasopressin release to increase plasma volume. At very high concentrations, vasopressin also causes vascular smooth muscle constriction through the V1 receptor, increasing vascular tone and therefore the blood pressure. Accordingly, vasopressin is often administered parenterally as a vasopressor agent in patients with hypotension that is refractory to volume restriction.
Vasopressin has effects on the immune system independent of its effect in stimulating the HPA axis. When given intraventricularly to rats, vasopressin decreases the T-cell response to mitogen independently of the HPA axis, probably via the sympathetic nervous system. Like CRH, vasopressin stimulates immune responses in peripheral tissues. Circulating or local vasopressin enhances lymphocyte reactions and potentiates primary antibody. Elevated vasopressin levels are found in a mouse model of autoimmune disease, and antibody neutralization ameliorates the inflammatory response in these mice. Vasopressin can potentiate the release of prolactin, a proinflammatory peptide hormone.
Because vasopressin has immunosuppressive effects when present in the central nervous system and immunosupportive effects when present in peripheral tissues, predicting which effect would predominate during vasopressin infusion in the ICU is difficult.
Vasopressin is a hormone of the posterior pituitary, that is secreted in response to high serum osmolarity. Excitation of atrial stretch receptors inhibits vasopressin secretion. Vasopressin is also released in response to stress, inflammatory signals, and some medications. Hypotension, morphine, nicotine, angiotensin II, glucocorticoids, and IL-6 all stimulate release of vasopressin. Circulating vasopressin levels are usually high in the early phase of septic shock, but vasopressin deficiency has been described in vasodilatory shock states in both adults and children. The level of vasopressin that is normal in the late phase of sepsis is unclear.
Vasopressin selectively raises free water reabsorption through the upregulation of aquaporin-2 water channels in the collecting duct, resulting in blood pressure elevation (Elliot et al., 1996; Linshaw 2011). Although it appears that the developing kidney is less sensitive to circulating vasopressin, plasma levels of vasopressin are markedly elevated in the neonate, especially after vaginal delivery, and its cardiovascular actions facilitate neonatal adaptation (Pohjavuori et al., 1985; Linshaw, 2011). The high vasopressin levels are in part also responsible for the diminished urine output of the healthy term neonate during the first day after birth. Under certain pathologic conditions, the dysregulated release of, or the end-organ unresponsiveness to, vasopressin significantly affects renal and cardiovascular functions and electrolyte and fluid status in the sick preterm and term neonate (Svenningsen et al., 1974). In the syndrome of inappropriate secretion of antidiuretic hormone (SIADH), an uncontrolled release of vasopressin occurs in sick preterm and term neonates, with resulting water retention, hyponatremia, and oligouria. In the syndrome of diabetes insipidus, the lack of pituitary production of vasopressin or renal unresponsiveness to vasopressin results in polyuria and hypernatremia.
Le Peptide natriurétique auriculaire :
Le peptide natriurétique auriculaire (ANP) est libéré des granules auriculaires. Il produit une natriurèse, une diurèse et une baisse modeste de la pression artérielle, tout en diminuant la rénine et l’aldostérone plasmatiques. Les peptides natriurétiques modifient également la transmission synaptique des osmorécepteurs. Le (PNA) est libéré à la suite de la stimulation de l’oreillette par distension et étirement des récepteurs. Les concentrations de (PNA) sont augmentées par des pressions de remplissage élevées et chez les patients souffrant d’hypertension artérielle et d’hypertrophie ventriculaire gauche comme la paroi du ventricule gauche est épaissie participe à la sécrétion d’ANP.
Eicosanoïdes :
Les métabolites de l’acide arachidonique modifient la pression artérielle par des effets directs sur le tonus musculaire lisse vasculaire et les interactions avec d’autres systèmes vasorégulateurs: système nerveux autonome, le système rénine-angiotensine – aldostérone et autres voies humorales. Chez les patients hypertendus, un dysfonctionnement des cellules endothéliales vasculaires pourrait entraîner une réduction des facteurs de relaxation dérivés de l’endothélium tels que l’oxyde nitrique, la prostacycline et le facteur hyperpolarisant dérivé de l’endothélium, ou une augmentation de la production de facteurs de contraction tels que l’endothéline-1 et le thromboxane A2. Systèmes kallikréine-kinine Les kallikréines tissulaires agissent sur le kininogène pour former des peptides vasoactifs. Le plus important est le bradykinin vasodilatateur. Les kinines jouent un rôle dans la régulation du débit sanguin rénal et de l’excrétion d’eau et de sodium. Les inhibiteurs de l’ECA diminuent la dégradation de la bradykinine en peptides inactifs. Mécanismes endothéliaux L’oxyde nitrique (NO) intervient dans la vasodilatation produite par l’acétylcholine, la bradykinine, le nitroprussiate de sodium et les nitrates. Chez les patients hypertendus, la relaxation dérivée de l’endothélium est inhibée. L’endothélium synthétise les endothélines, les vasoconstricteurs les plus puissants. La génération ou la sensibilité à l’endothéline-1 n’est pas plus élevée chez les sujets hypertendus que chez les sujets normotendus. Néanmoins, les effets vasculaires délétères de l’endothéline-1 endogène peuvent être accentués par une génération réduite d’oxyde nitrique causée par une dysfonction endothéliale hypertensive.
Stéroïdes surrénales :
Les minéraux et glucocorticoïdes augmentent la pression artérielle. Cet effet est médié par la rétention de sodium et d’eau (minéralocorticoïdes) ou une réactivité vasculaire accrue (glucocorticoïdes). De plus, les glucocorticoïdes et les minéralocorticoïdes augmentent le tonus vasculaire en régulant les récepteurs des hormones pressives telles que l’angiotensine II. Vasodépression rénomédullaire Les cellules interstitielles rénomédullaires, situées principalement dans la papille rénale, sécrètent une substance inactive la médullipine I. Ce lipide est transformé dans le foie en médullipine II. Cette substance exerce un effet hypotenseur prolongé, éventuellement par vasodilatation directe, inhibition de la pulsion sympathique en réponse à l’hypotension et une action diurétique. On suppose que l’activité du système rénomédullaire est contrôlée par le flux sanguin médullaire rénal. Excrétion de sodium et d’eau La rétention de sodium et d’eau est associée à une augmentation de la pression artérielle. Il est postulé que le sodium, via le mécanisme d’échange sodium-calcium, provoque une augmentation du calcium intracellulaire dans le muscle lisse vasculaire entraînant une augmentation du tonus vasculaire. La principale cause de rétention de sodium et d’eau peut être une relation anormale entre la pression et l’excrétion de sodium résultant d’une diminution du débit sanguin rénal, d’une masse néphronique réduite et d’une augmentation de l’angiotensine ou des minéralocorticoïdes. Physiopathologie L’hypertension est une élévation chronique de la pression artérielle qui, à long terme, cause des dommages aux organes terminaux et entraîne une augmentation de la morbidité et de la mortalité. La pression artérielle est le produit du débit cardiaque et de la résistance vasculaire systémique. Il s’ensuit que les patients souffrant d’hypertension artérielle peuvent avoir une augmentation du débit cardiaque, une augmentation de la résistance vasculaire systémique, ou les deux. Dans le groupe d’âge plus jeune, le débit cardiaque est souvent élevé, tandis que chez les patients plus âgés, une résistance vasculaire systémique accrue et une rigidité accrue du système vasculaire jouent un rôle dominant. Le tonus vasculaire peut être élevé en raison d’une stimulation accrue des récepteurs a-adrénergiques ou d’une libération accrue de peptides tels que l’angiotensine ou les endothélines. La dernière voie est une augmentation du calcium cytosolique dans le muscle lisse vasculaire provoquant une vasoconstriction. Plusieurs facteurs de croissance, dont l’angiotensine et les endothélines, provoquent une augmentation de la masse musculaire vasculaire lisse appelée remodelage vasculaire. A la fois une augmentation de la résistance vasculaire systémique et une augmentation de la résistance vasculaire
la rigidité augmente la charge imposée au ventricule gauche; cela induit une hypertrophie ventriculaire gauche et un dysfonctionnement diastolique ventriculaire gauche. Chez les jeunes, la pression du pouls générée par le ventricule gauche est
relativement faible et les ondes reflétées par le système vasculaire périphérique se produit principalement après la fin de la systole, augmentant ainsi la pression au début partie de la diastole et l’amélioration de la perfusion coronaire. Avec vieillissement, raidissement de l’aorte et des artères élastiques,augmente la pression du pouls. Les ondes réfléchies passent de la diastole précoce à la systole tardive. Il en résulte une augmentation de la postcharge ventriculaire gauche et contribue à l’hypertrophie ventriculaire gauche. L’élargissement de la pression du pouls avec le vieillissement est un puissant prédicteur des maladies coronariennes. Le système nerveux autonome joue un rôle important dans le contrôle de la pression artérielle. Chez les patients hypertendus, une libération accrue et une sensibilité périphérique accrue à la noradrénaline peuvent être trouvées. De plus, il y a une réactivité accrue aux stimuli stressants. Une autre caractéristique de l’hypertension artérielle est la réinitialisation des baroréflexes diminution de la sensibilité des barorécepteurs. Le système rénine-angiotensine est impliqué au moins dans certaines formes d’hypertension (par exemple l’hypertension rénovasculaire) et est supprimé en présence d’hyperaldostéronisme primaire. Les patients âgés ou noirs ont tendance à souffrir d’hypertension à faible rénine. D’autres ont une hypertension à rénine élevée et ceux-ci sont plus susceptibles de développer un infarctus myocardique et d’autres complications cardiovasculaires. Dans l’hypertension essentielle humaine et expérimentale,l’hypertension, la régulation du volume et la relation entre la pression artérielle et l’excrétion de sodium (natriurèse sous pression) sont anormales. Des preuves considérables indiquent que la réinitialisation de la natriurèse sous pression joue un rôle clé dans la cause de l’hypertension. Chez les patients souffrant d’hypertension essentielle, la réinitialisation de la natriurèse sous pression se caractérise soit par un déplacement parallèle vers des pressions sanguines plus élevées et une hypertension insensible au sel, soit par une diminution de la pente de la natriurèse sous pression et de l’hypertension sensible au sel. Conséquences et complications de l’hypertension Les conséquences cardiaques de l’hypertension sont l’hypertrophie ventriculaire gauche et la maladie coronarienne. L’hypertrophie ventriculaire gauche est causée par une surcharge de pression et est concentrique. Il y a une augmentation de la masse musculaire et de l’épaisseur de la paroi mais pas du volume ventriculaire. L’hypertrophie ventriculaire gauche altère la fonction diastolique, ralentit la relaxation ventriculaire et retarde le remplissage. L’hypertrophie ventriculaire gauche est un facteur de risque indépendant de maladie cardiovasculaire, en particulier de mort subite. Les conséquences de l’hypertension sont fonction de sa gravité. Il n’y a pas de seuil de complications, car l’élévation de la pression artérielle est associée à une morbidité accrue dans toute la plage de pression artérielle (tableau 1).
La maladie coronarienne est associée à, et accélérée par, l’hypertension artérielle chronique, entraînant une ischémie myocardique et un infarctus du myocarde. En effet, l’ischémie myocardique est beaucoup plus fréquente chez les patients hypertendus non traités ou mal contrôlés que chez les patients normotendus. Deux principaux facteurs contribuent à l’ischémie myocardique: une augmentation de la demande en oxygène liée à la pression et une diminution de l’apport coronarien en oxygène résultant des lésions athéromateuses associées. L’hypertension est un facteur de risque important de décès par maladie coronarienne. L’insuffisance cardiaque est une conséquence d’une surcharge de pression chronique. Il peut commencer par un dysfonctionnement diastolique et évoluer vers une insuffisance systolique manifeste avec congestion cardiaque. Les AVC sont des complications majeures de l’hypertension; ils résultent d’une thrombose, d’une thrombo-embolie ou d’une hémorragie intracrânienne. La maladie rénale, initialement révélée par une micro albuminaémie, peut évoluer lentement et se manifester au cours des années suivantes. Traitement à long terme de l’hypertension Tous les antihypertenseurs doivent agir en diminuant le débit cardiaque, la résistance vasculaire périphérique ou les deux. Les classes de médicaments les plus couramment utilisées comprennent les diurétiques thiazidiques, les bbloquants, les inhibiteurs de l’ECA, les antagonistes des récepteurs de l’angiotensine II, les bloqueurs des canaux calciques, les bloqueurs des récepteurs adrénergiques, les bloqueurs combinés des a et b, les vasodilatateurs directs et certains médicaments à action centrale tels que les a2- agonistes des récepteurs adrénergiques et agonistes des récepteurs de l’imidazoline I1. La modification du style de vie est la première étape du traitement de l’hypertension; il comprend une restriction modérée en sodium, une réduction de poids chez les obèses, une diminution de la consommation d’alcool et une augmentation de l’exercice. Un traitement médicamenteux est nécessaire lorsque les mesures ci-dessus n’ont pas réussi ou lorsque l’hypertension est déjà à un stade dangereux (stade 3) lors de sa première reconnaissance.
Thérapie médicamenteuse
Diurétiques:
Le traitement diurétique à faible dose est efficace et réduit le risque d’accident vasculaire cérébral, de maladie coronarienne, d’insuffisance cardiaque congestive et de mortalité totale. Alors que les thiazides sont les plus couramment utilisés, les diurétiques de l’anse
sont également utilisés avec succès et l’association avec un diurétique d’épargne potassique réduit le risque d’hypokaliémie et d’hypomagnésémie. Même à petites doses, les diurétiques potentialisent d’autres antihypertenseurs. Le risque de mort subite est réduit lorsque des diurétiques épargneurs de potassium sont utilisés. À long terme, les spironolactones réduisent la morbidité et la mortalité chez les patients souffrant d’insuffisance cardiaque
c’est une complication typique de l’hypertension de longue date.
Bêta-bloquants:
Un tonus sympathique élevé, l’angine de poitrine et un infarctus du myocarde antérieur sont de bonnes raisons d’utiliser des bêtabloquants. Étant donné qu’une faible dose minimise le risque de fatigue (un effet désagréable du blocage b
l’ajout d’un diurétique ou d’un inhibiteur calcique est souvent bénéfique. Cependant, le traitement par blocage b estassociée à des symptômes de dépression, de fatigue et de dysfonction sexuelle. Ces effets secondaires
doivent être pris en considération dans l’évaluation des avantages du traitement. Au cours des dernières années, les b-bloquants ont été utilisés de plus en plus fréquemment dans la prise en charge de l’insuffisance cardiaque, complication connue de l’hypertension artérielle. Ils sont efficaces mais leur introduction en présence d’insuffisance cardiaque doit être très prudente, à commencer par des doses très faibles pour éviter une aggravation initiale de l’insuffisance cardiaque. Bloqueurs des canaux calciques Les bloqueurs des canaux calciques peuvent être divisés en dihydropyridines (par exemple nifédipine, nimodipine, amlodipine) et non-dihydropyridines (vérapamil, diltiazem). Les deux groupes diminuent la résistance vasculaire périphérique mais le vérapamil et le diltiazem ont des effets inotropes et chronotropes négatifs. Les dihydropyridines à courte durée d’action telles que la nifédipine provoquent une activation sympathique réflexe et une tachycardie, tandis que les médicaments à longue durée d’action tels que l’amlodipine et les préparations à libération lente de nifédipine provoquent moins d’activation sympathique. Les dihydropyridines à courte durée d’action semblent augmenter le risque de mort subite. Cependant, l’essai sur l’hypertension systolique en Europe (SYST-EUR) qui comparait la nitrendipine au placebo a dû être arrêté tôt en raison des avantages significatifs
thérapie. Les inhibiteurs calciques sont efficaces chez les personnes âgées et peuvent être sélectionnés en monothérapie pour les patients atteints du phénomène de Raynaud, de maladie vasculaire périphérique ou d’asthme, car ces patients ne tolèrent pas les b-bloquants. Le diltiazem et le vérapamil sont contre-indiqués dans l’insuffisance cardiaque. La nifédipine est efficace dans l’hypertension sévère et peut être utilisée par voie sublinguale; il faut faire preuve de prudence en raison du risque d’hypotension excessive. Les bloqueurs des canaux calciques sont souvent associés aux b-bloquants, aux diurétiques et / ou aux inhibiteurs de l’ECA.
Inhibiteurs de l’enzyme de conversion de l’angiotensine:
Les inhibiteurs de l’ECA sont de plus en plus utilisés comme traitement de première intention. Ils ont relativement peu d’effets secondaires et de contre-indications, à l’exception des sténoses bilatérales de l’artère rénale. Bien que les inhibiteurs de l’ECA soient efficaces dans l’hypertension rénovasculaire unilatérale, il existe un risque d’atrophie ischémique. Par conséquent, l’angioplastie ou la reconstruction chirurgicale de l’artère rénale sont préférables à une thérapie purement médicale à long terme. Les inhibiteurs de l’ECA sont des agents de premier choix chez les patients hypertendus diabétiques car ils ralentissent la progression de la dysfonction rénale. Dans l’hypertension avec insuffisance cardiaque, les inhibiteurs de l’ECA sont également des médicaments de premier choix. L’essai HOPE a montré que le ramipril réduisait le risque d’événements cardiovasculaires même en l’absence d’hypertension. Ainsi, cet inhibiteur de l’ECA peut exercer un effet protecteur par des mécanismes autres que la réduction de la pression artérielle. Bloqueurs des récepteurs de l’angiotensine II Comme l’angiotensine II stimule les récepteurs AT1 qui provoquent la vasoconstriction, les antagonistes des récepteurs de l’angiotensine AT1 sont des antihypertenseurs efficaces. Le losartan, le valsartan et le candésartan sont efficaces et provoquent moins de toux que les inhibiteurs de l’ECA. L’étude LIFE est le plus récent essai historique sur l’hypertension. Plus de 9000 patients ont été randomisés pour recevoir soit le losartan, un antagoniste des récepteurs de l’angiotensine, soit un b-bloquant
(aténolol). Les patients du bras losartan ont présenté une meilleure réduction de la mortalité et de la morbidité, en raison d’une plus grande réduction des AVC. Le losartan a également été plus efficace pour réduire l’hypertrophie ventriculaire gauche, un puissant facteur de risque indépendant d’effets indésirables. Chez les patients souffrant d’hypertension systolique isolée, la supériorité du losartan sur l’aténolol était encore plus prononcée que chez ceux souffrant d’hypertension systolique et diastolique. Ces résultats favorables ont conduit à un éditorial intitulé: «Blocus de l’angiotensine dans l’hypertension: une promesse tenue». Il convient de noter que le comparateur de l’étude LIFE était un b-bloquant et que, dans le passé, les b-bloquants n’étaient pas meilleurs que le placebo chez les personnes âgées.
Bloqueurs a1-adrénergiques Exempts d’effets secondaires métaboliques, ces médicaments réduisent le cholestérol sanguin et la résistance vasculaire périphérique. La prazosine a une action plus courte que la doxazosine, l’indoramine et la térazosine. Ces médicaments sont hautement sélectifs pour les récepteurs adrénergiques a1. La somnolence, l’hypotension orthostatique et parfois la tachycardie peuvent être gênantes. La rétention d’eau peut nécessiter l’ajout d’un diurétique. La phénoxybenzamine est un agoniste des récepteurs a-adrénergiques non compétitif utilisé (en association avec un b-bloquant) dans la prise en charge des patients atteints de phaéochromocytome, bien que récemment la doxazosine ait été utilisée avec succès. Vasodilatateurs directs:
L’hydralazine et le minoxidil sont des vasodilatateurs à action directe. Leur utilisation a diminué en raison du potentiel d’effets secondaires graves (syndrome du lupus avec l’hydralazine, hirsutisme avec le minoxidil). Inhibiteurs adrénergiques centraux La méthyldopa est à la fois un faux neurotransmetteur et un agoniste des récepteurs adrénergiques a2. La clonidine et la dexmédétomidine sont des agonistes des récepteurs a2-adrénergiques situés au centre. La sélectivité pour les adrénorécepteurs a2 vs a1 est la plus élevée pour la dexmédétomidine (1620: 1), suivie par la clonidine (220: 1), et la moins pour l’a-méthyldopa (10: 1). La clonidine et la dexmédétomidine rendent la circulation plus stable,
réduire la libération de catécholamines en réponse au stress, et
provoquer une sédation telle que la dexmédétomidine est maintenant utilisée pour la sédation dans les unités de soins intensifs.
La moxonidine est représentative d’une nouvelle classe d’agents antihypertenseurs agissant sur les récepteurs de l’imidazoline1 (I1). La moxonidine réduit l’activité sympathique en agissant sur les centres de la rostrale ventrale
médullaire latérale, réduisant ainsi la résistance vasculaire périphérique.
Peptides natriurétiques:
Les peptides natriurétiques jouent un rôle dans le contrôle du tonus vasculaire et interagissent avec le système rénine-angiotensine-aldostérone. En inhibant leur dégradation, les inhibiteurs de la peptidase rendent ces peptides naturels plus efficaces, réduisant ainsi la résistance vasculaire. Cependant, il n’y a que des essais à petite échelle de leur efficacité. Dans l’ensemble, des études récentes n’ont pas réussi à démontrer la supériorité des agents modernes sur les médicaments plus traditionnels, sauf dans des circonstances particulières, comme l’a démontré une méta-analyse basée sur 15 essais et 75 000 patients. Chez de nombreux patients, un traitement efficace est obtenu par l’association de deux agents ou plus, avec un gain d’efficacité et une réduction des effets secondaires.
Gestion des risques
En plus des mesures pharmacologiques pour le contrôle de la pression artérielle, il devrait y avoir un traitement actif des facteurs connus pour augmenter le risque d’hypertension. Il existe deux mesures distinctes. Premièrement, ceux qui abaissent la tension artérielle, par exemple la réduction de poids, la réduction de la consommation de sel, la limitation de la consommation d’alcool, l’exercice physique, l’augmentation de la consommation de fruits et légumes et la réduction de la consommation totale et de graisses saturées. Deuxièmement, ceux qui réduisent le risque cardiovasculaire, par exemple arrêter de fumer; remplacer les graisses saturées par des graisses polyinsaturées et monoinsaturées; augmentation de la consommation de poisson gras; et réduit l’apport total en graisses. Étant donné que les patients hypertendus courent un risque très élevé de maladie coronarienne, d’autres mesures thérapeutiques comprennent les thérapies par l’aspirine et les statines. L’aspirine à faible dose est efficace dans la prévention des événements thrombotiques tels que les accidents vasculaires cérébraux et l’infarctus du myocarde;
cela est également vrai chez les patients hypertendus dont la pression artérielle est bien contrôlée. Le risque de saignement sévère est très faible à condition que la pression artérielle soit réduite à moins de 150 / 90mmHg. Les avantages du traitement médicamenteux hypolipidémiant avec des statines sont bien établis dans les maladies coronariennes et les maladies cérébrovasculaires, deux conditions fréquemment associées à l’hypertension artérielle.
Références clés
Cain AE, Khalil RA. Physiopathologie de l’hypertension essentielle: rôle de la pompe, du vaisseau et du rein. Semin Nephrol 2002; 22: 3-16
Franklin SS, Khan SA, Wong ND, Larson MG, Levy D. La pression du pouls est-elle utile pour prédire le risque de maladie coronarienne? L’étude cardiaque de
Framingham. Circulation 1999; 100: 354–60
Hansson L, Zanchetti A, Carruthers SG, et al. Effets de la pression artérielle intensive diminution et faible dose d’aspirine chez les patients souffrant d’hypertension: principaux résultats de l’essai randomisé sur le traitement optimal de l’hypertension (HOT). Groupe d’étude HOT. Lancet 1998; 351: 1755–62
Haynes WG, Webb DJ. L’endothéline en tant que régulateur de la fonction cardiovasculaire dans la santé et la maladie. J Hypertension 1998; 16: 1081–98
Howell SJ, Hemming AE, Allman KG, Glover L, Sear JW, Foe¨x P. Prédicteurs de l’ischémie myocardique postopératoire. Le rôle de l’hypertension artérielle intercurrente et d’autres facteurs de risque cardiovasculaire. Anesthésie 1997; 52: 107-11
Prys-Roberts C. Phaeochromocytoma — progrès récents dans sa gestion. Br J Anaesth 2000; 85: 44 57
Weinberger MH. Sensibilité au sel de la pression artérielle chez l’homme. Hypertension 1996; 27: 481–90
Williams B, Poulter NR, Brown MJ. Directive de la British Hypertension Society pour la gestion de l’hypertension. Br J Med 2004; 328: 634–40
Yusuf S, Sleight P, Pogue J, Bosch J, Davies R, Dagenais G. Effets d’un inhibiteur de l’enzyme de conversion de l’angiotensine, le ramipril, sur les événements cardiovasculaires chez les patients à haut risque. Les chercheurs de l’étude d’évaluation de la prévention des résultats cardiaques. New Engl J Med 2000; 342: 145–53
Limbic system(physiology)
The limbic system(Physiology)
The limbic system is a group of gray matter and white matter structures lodged deep within the cerebrum that are involved in four functions: olfaction, emotional responses, behavioral activities and memories.
Anatomical structures:
–Limbic lobe: has two main components that are cingulate gyrus (involved in memory and emotional processing and autonomic nervous system) and Para hippocampal gyrus (primarily involved in memory processing).
– Hippocampal formation: composed of three parts: dentate gyrus (afferent information, subiculum (efferent information) hippocampus proper (efferent information)
– Amygdala: which is involved in emotions and emotional behaviors and emotional responses to smell. The Amygdala has two components: cortico medial nuclear group (involved in olfaction) and basolateral nuclear group (all other emotions and behaviors not related to olfaction).
– Hypothalamus: the most important nuclei of hypothalamus in relation with limbic system are mammillary bodies, and autonomic nervous system nuclei (posterior sympathetic anterior parasympathetic)
– Thalamus: there are two main nuclei involved in the limbic system (anterior nucleus of the thalamus which is involved in papez circuit and the other one is called the mediodorsal nucleus which is involved in the circuit connecting the amygdala to prefrontal cortex “emotions and behaviors)
Septal area:
Habenula (part of epithalamus)
Habenula and septal area are connected via a structure called stria medullaris and are involved, particularly in reward pathway and emotional responses as well.
Pathways connecting different structures of the limbic system:
Fornix:
Connects hippocampus to hypothalamus (mammillary bodies) and the septal area.
Striae terminalis: connects the amygdala to the hypothalamus and septal area.
Ventral amygdalofugal pathway : connects the amygdala to the hypothalamus and septal area and also to the mediodorsal nucleus of the thalamus
Striae Medullaris thalami: connects septal area to habenula.
Mamillo-thalamic tract: connects mammillary bodies to the anterior nucleus of the thalamus.
Medial forebrain bundle: two-way connection that connects the prefrontal cortex to the reticular formation in the brain stem running through the hypothalamus.
Mamillo tegmental tract: connects mammillary bodies of hypothalamus to ventral tegmental area
Mamillary peduncles: connects the ventral tegmental area to the hypothalamus
Functions of limbic system:
-Olfaction: Olfactory epithelial cells, olfactory bulb, action potential in the olfactory tracts, the olfactory tracts bifurcate in medial olfactory striate and lateral olfactory striate which goes into the Para hippocampal gyrus (memory) and to the amygdala (emotions of smell).
-Memory (learning): papez circuit:
Subiculum → Fornix → Mamillary bodies → Mamillo thalamic tract → anterior nucleus of the thalamus → cingulate gyrus →Para hippocampal gyrus → entorhinal cortex → dentate gyrus → subiculum.
Hippocampus (dentate gyrus, which is the receiving portion and subiculum and hippocampus proper which are the leaving portion),
Cingulate gyrus sends also the information to the prefrontal cortex and the purpose of communicating with the prefrontal cortex is to have our memory be involved with our thought and decision making.
-Emotions: particularly the emotional responses, and it’s also involved in behaviors and there are three types of behaviors that the limbic system is involved in :
a) Emotional responses: that means (fear, rage, anger, sadness)
b) Behaviors (feeding behaviors, sexual behaviors, motivational behaviors)
The Amygdala is the center (epicenter) for emotions and behaviors in the limbic system. How does it basically know that we are fearful, angry, or sad? In fact, the limbic system is in communication with our cerebral cortex.
Prefrontal cortex: is involved in thought processing (reasoning, judgment, decision making, personality
Temporal lobe: is involved in multiple functions (smell, taste, visceral sensations, and other areas which are involved in auditory association areas and all are in communication with the amygdala)
Posterior association area: receives information from three different areas: somatosensory association cortex, visual association cortex, and auditory association cortex, and then communicates that with the amygdala, so the amygdala receives informations from all of these structures. And from the cerebral cortex communicating with the amygdala, it will be possible to have enough information to send information to two regions via striae terminalis to septal area and hypothalamus.
The feeding is also controlled by amygdala imagine the sadness amygdala will send information to the nuclei of hypothalamus the ventro-medial nucleus is involved in satiety and the other nucleus is called lateral hypothalamus nucleus and is involved in hunger so the amygdala is responsible for feeding aspect of the organism.
The sexual behavior is also controlled by amygdala:
Depending your psychological situation amygdala feel if you are in sexual mood or not and if yes it will intervene by two nucleus the first one is paraventricular nucleus which releases oxytocin which is commonly secreted in females for uterine contraction and milk ejection, in males it is engaged in sexual orgasm and sexual drives itself. And the other one is Medial Preoptic nucleus which releases Gonadotropin releasing Hormone and GNRH releases in male testosterone which is also responsible for increased sex drive.
Motivational behavior:
We know that amygdala connects with septal area and hypothalamus via the striae terminalis or Ventral medio amygdalo fugal pathway and from the septal area or from the hypothalamus they both can communicate with the ventral tegmental area located in the brainstem, in the ventral tegmental area there is a lot of dopamine (many dopaminergic neurons are located there) and ventral tegmental area sends neurons to Nucleus Accumbens and prefrontal cortex so the amygdala in some conditions (drug abuse for example) will sends the information to the septal area and to hypothalamus and these in turn will send informations to the ventral tegmental area and from the ventral tegmental area the dopaminergic neurons will connect with nucleus Accumbens and prefrontal cortex. The pathway from the ventral tegmental area to the prefrontal cortex is called the meso cortical pathway and the pathway from the ventral tegmental area to the nucleus Accumbens is called the mesolimbic pathway. The areas receiving the dopaminergic neurons are engaged in reward sensation
Fear:
In fear induced (as emotion) the amygdala will connect via the stria terminalis and ventral amygdalofugal pathway with hypothalamus (posterior hypothalamic nucleus) and the posterior hypothalamic nucleus sends its descending axons downwards via what is called the hypothalamospinal tract and innervates the preganglionic neurons(sympathetic) located within the thoraco lumbar region of the spinal cord and from there the sympathetic motor neurons will go to the target organs and the final result will be:
Sympathetic activation: cf autonomic nervous system
And the Paraventricular nucleus of hypothalamus which will secrete the cortico-tropine releasing hormone (CRH) which will stimulate the secretion of ACTH by pituitary gland, which in turn will activate the cortisol secretion in adrenal gland (cortisol is called the stress hormone)
Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH), a 41 amino acid neuropeptide, discovered in 1981 by Wiley Vale is likely involved in all three types of stress-response. Behavioral responses may involve CRH present in the cerebral cortex and amygdala. Autonomic responses are controlled in part by brainstem fibers descending from the locus coeruleus, which receives CRH-containing fibers from the amygdala and paraventricular nucleus. Hormonal responses center on activation of the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal (HPA) axis, which is initiated by CRH present in the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus (PVH).
New treatment of inflammatory bowel disease
New treatment of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) by autonomic nervous system remodeling :
Epidemiology
- Higher incidence (9 – 20/100,000 person years) and prevalence (156 – 291/100,000 people) in populations of North American and Northern European descent (Lancet 2012;380:1606)
- Incidence increased in industrialized countries and urban versus rural locations, suggestive of environmental triggers, such as improved sanitation, reduced exposure to childhood enteric infections and mucosal immune system maturation (Lancet 2012;380:1606)
- Bimodal age distribution with peaks at 15 – 30 years and 50 – 70 years (Lancet 2012;380:1606)
- Family history of inflammatory bowel disease, particularly that of a first degree relative (5.7 – 15.5%) and Ashkenazi Jewish descent (3 – 5x) show higher risk of disease development (Lancet 2012;380:1606)
- Gastrointestinal infections with Salmonella spp, Shigella spp and Campylobacter spp have twice the risk of developing ulcerative colitis postinfection (Lancet 2012;380:1606)
- M = F
- Former cigarette smoking is strong risk factor (Lancet 2017;389:1756)
- Almost always involves the rectum
- Continuous pattern of involvement proximally to include up to the entire colon (pancolitis)
- Rectal sparing can be seen, particularly after treatment (Lancet 2012;380:1606, Histopathology 2014;64:317, Am J Clin Pathol 2004;122:94)
- Patch of inflammation in the cecum, often involving the periappendiceal mucosa (cecal patch), can be present (Lancet 2012;380:1606, Histopathology 2014;64:317)
- Approximately 20% of patients will have inflammation in the terminal ileum (backwash ileitis)
- Typically present in patients with pancolitis (Am J Surg Pathol 2005;29:1472)
- Focally enhanced gastritis can be seen in approximately 20% of pediatric patients (Pathology 2017;49:808)
- Extraintestinal manifestations:
- Peripheral arthritis, seronegative
- Ankylosing spondylitis or sacroiliitis
- Erythema nodosum
- Pyoderma granulosum
- Primary sclerosing cholangitis (PSC)
- Not fully known but appears to be a complex multifactorial process involving an overwhelming T helper type 2-like immune response, leading to mucosal injury in response to gut microbial dysbiosis in genetically predisposed patients
- Proposed mechanisms include:
- Damage to the colonic epithelial barrier due to dysregulation of epithelial tight junctions, which provide a physical barrier between the immune cells and the luminal microbes, leads to increased permeability (Lancet 2012;380:1606)
- Colonic epithelium upregulation of antimicrobial peptides, known as beta defensins (Lancet 2012;380:1606)
- Disruption in the homeostatic balance of the mucosal immunity and the enteric nonpathogenic bacteria, resulting in the patient’s aberrant immune response to the enteric commensal bacteria (Lancet 2012;380:1606, Front Microbiol 2018;9:2247)
- Increased number of colonic epithelium activated and mature dendritic cells with increased stimulatory capacity (Lancet 2012;380:1606)
- Increased expression of TLR4 by lamina propria cells and TLR4 polymorphism, which can alter susceptibility to enteric infections and tolerance to commensal bacteria (Lancet 2012;380:1606)
- Disruption in the homeostatic balance between regulatory and effector T cells, leading to a nonclassic natural killer T cell production of IL5 and IL13, which have cytotoxic effects on epithelial cells, mediating an atypical Th2 response
- IL13 can induce a positive feedback system on the natural killer T cells, leading to increased tissue injury (Lancet 2012;380:1606)
- Increase in proinflammatory cytokines, chemoattractants such as CXCL8 and adhesion molecules such as MadCAM1 recruit increased leukocytes to the colonic mucosa (Lancet 2012;380:1606)
- Other genetic risk loci include IL23 and IL10, JAK2 kinase pathway genes, hepatocyte nuclear factor 4α, CDH1 and laminin β1 (Lancet 2012;380:1606)
Imagine the situation of this gazelle:

- Clinical symptoms include bloody diarrhea, abdominal pain, mucus discharge, fecal urgency, tenesmus; in severe cases, symptoms may include weight loss, fever or colonic perforation (Mayo Clin Proc 2019;94:1357)
- Characterized by alternating periods of clinical relapse and remission
- At diagnosis, most patients have mild to moderate symptoms, with fewer than 10% having severe disease
- Patients presenting with severe disease are usually those diagnosed at young ages (15 – 30 years of age) or with simultaneous PSC (Lancet 2012;380:1606)
- 30 – 50% of patients will present with disease of the rectum or sigmoid colon and only approximately 20% of patients will present with pancolitis (Lancet 2012;380:1606)
- Appendectomy due to acute appendicitis before age 20 has been shown to be protective against ulcerative colitis (Lancet 2012;380:1606)
- Fulminant colitis, known as acute, clinically severe colitis involving the entire colon and requiring surgical resection, can be seen (Histopathology 2014;64:317)
- Toxic megacolon (marked colonic dilation with signs of systemic toxicity) can occur and requires surgical intervention (BMJ Case Rep 2018;2018:bcr2018227121)
- May have iron deficiency anemia
- Increased risk of hypercoagulability and thrombosis
- Disease severity via endoscopy is stratified as remission, mild, moderate or severe
- Numerous severity indices exist
- Goal of endoscopic remission following therapy
- Correlation of clinical symptoms with endoscopic and histological examination
- Exclusion of other etiologies for colitis (infection, drug, etc.)
- Colonoscopy with biopsy is essential
- Endoscopic findings include erythema, loss of vascular pattern, granularity, friability and erosion / ulceration
- Often a sharp demarcation between inflammation and normal mucosa (Lancet 2017;389:1756)
- High definition colonoscopy or chromoendoscopy are preferred over traditional white light endoscopy due to higher sensitivity (93 – 97%) and specificity (93%) (Dig Endosc 2016;28:266, Histopathology 2015;66:37)
- Targeted biopsies of mucosal abnormalities and random biopsies at each segment of the colon help determine microscopic extent of disease (Gastroenterol Hepatol (N Y) 2017;13:357, Dig Endosc 2016;28:266)
- Esophagogastroduodenoscopy to rule out upper gastrointestinal tract involvement
- Overall nonspecific
- Markers of inflammation
- Erythrocyte sedimentation rate ≥ 30 mm/h
- C reactive protein > 8 mg/L
- Leukocytosis and thrombocytosis
- Antineutrophil cytoplasmic antibodies
- Fecal calprotectin > 50.0 mcg/g
- References: Pathologica 2021;113:39, Diagnostics (Basel) 2021;11:207
- Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and computed tomography (CT) may be useful in identifying bowel wall thickening and ahaustral colon but are not sensitive or specific for diagnosis of acute disease
- Plain upright abdominal Xray can be performed in patients with severe colitis to assess for toxic megacolon
- Mid transverse colon dilation > 5.5 cm (Lancet 2017;389:1756)
- Target or double halo sign can be seen in cases of advanced disease
- Colorectal carcinoma is the cause of death in an estimated 15% of inflammatory bowel disease patients; risk factors for developing colorectal carcinoma include:
- Duration of disease (increased risk of up to 2% after 10 years, 8% after 20 years and 18% after 30 years)
- Extent of disease, with pancolitis carrying the highest risk
- Simultaneous PSC, severity of colitis, psuedopolyps, family history of sporadic colorectal carcinoma and male sex
- Risk factors for aggressive or complicated disease include:
- Young age at onset, pancolitis, lack of endoscopic healing, deep ulcerations and high concentrations of antineutrophil cytoplasmic antibodies
- References: Lancet 2012;380:1606, Lancet 2017;389:1756
Treatment
(All treatment with drugs is only symptomatic because they treat the inflammation and not the cause and origin of the disease and the only way to cure the disease is limbic rehabilitation and autonomic nervous system remodeling.)
- 5-aminosalicylate agents are first line therapy for mild to moderate disease
- Corticosteroids
- Patients with moderate to severe disease may require thiopurines or biologic agents (anti-TNF therapy or anti-integrin therapy) (Mayo Clin Proc 2019;94:1357)
- Patients with proctitis only may be treated with topical agents
- Colorectal carcinoma surveillance at 8 – 10 years after the onset of symptoms and fixed interval surveillance every 1 – 2 years afterward (Gastroenterol Hepatol (N Y) 2017;13:357)
- Surgery will eventually be required in 20 – 30% of patients with ulcerative colitis that has become refractory to medical management or who have developed dysplasia or colorectal carcinoma (Lancet 2012;380:1606)
- Total colectomy with ileal pouch – anal anastomosis is preferred surgical intervention
new treatment of irritable bowel syndrome without drugs
A New Therapeutic Approach to Irritable Bowel Syndrome Through Autonomic Nervous System Remodeling
Introduction
Irritable bowel syndrome (IBS) is classified as a functional gastrointestinal disorder. Autonomic nervous system remodeling through limbic retraining is a highly sophisticated technique aimed at physiologically treating gastrointestinal disorders. In patients with “pure IBS,” the effectiveness of this treatment has, according to our clinical experience, been observed in hundreds of successfully treated patients. The same approach has also been applied to patients with IBS associated with nonspecific colitis. More recently, we have begun treating patients with inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD) and have observed favorable clinical outcomes.
To understand the potential effectiveness of this technique, it is necessary to investigate the etiology and the precise pathophysiological mechanisms underlying these abnormalities.
Irritable bowel syndrome is a chronic disorder of the lower gastrointestinal tract that affects a substantial proportion of the adult population worldwide. It is characterized by gastrointestinal symptoms occurring in the absence of readily identifiable structural abnormalities, infection, or major metabolic disorders. Although the underlying mechanisms of IBS remained poorly understood for many years, recent research has substantially improved our understanding of its pathophysiology.
IBS has historically been referred to as “spastic,” “nervous,” or “irritable” colon. Its defining clinical feature is abdominal pain associated with a change in stool consistency and/or stool frequency.
The prevalence of IBS in a given population varies according to ethnic and cultural background as well as the diagnostic criteria used to define the disorder. Studies conducted in Western countries have reported IBS symptoms in approximately 8–20% of adults, with women accounting for approximately two-thirds of affected individuals. Similar prevalence rates have been reported in several Asian and African populations. In India, IBS appears to be more frequently reported among men, although this difference may partly reflect variations in symptom reporting and healthcare-seeking behavior between sexes.
Clinical manifestations of IBS may include abdominal pain, abdominal distension, bloating, dyspeptic symptoms, and various alterations in bowel habits.
IBS can be broadly classified into three major clinical subtypes according to the predominant bowel pattern:
- IBS with diarrhea (IBS-D);
- IBS with constipation (IBS-C);
- IBS with mixed bowel habits, characterized by alternating diarrhea and constipation (IBS-M).
The major pathophysiological features of IBS include abnormalities in gastrointestinal motility, visceral sensation, and central nervous system regulation. Altered gastrointestinal motility may manifest as abnormal intestinal contractions, including excessive or insufficient contractile activity. Enhanced visceral sensitivity may result in abdominal pain and discomfort in response to stimuli that would normally be perceived as non-painful or minimally uncomfortable.
Research has shown that some patients with IBS exhibit disorganized colonic contractions that may be significantly more intense than those observed in healthy individuals.
IBS is not a psychiatric disorder. However, it is strongly influenced by psychological and social stressors, which may affect both the onset and severity of gastrointestinal symptoms. Patients with IBS also demonstrate a disproportionately high prevalence of comorbid conditions, including fibromyalgia, chronic fatigue, chronic pelvic pain, anxiety, depression, and other disorders whose underlying etiology remains incompletely understood.
Based on our clinical observations and the therapeutic responses observed in patients treated using this approach, we hypothesize that IBS may be closely associated with dysregulation of limbic system function and its interactions with the autonomic nervous system.
To explain how this system may become dysregulated and how such dysregulation could contribute to a wide range of disorders currently considered chronic or difficult to treat, we propose beginning with the mechanisms of stress and trauma.
I. Scientific Definition of Stress
Stress is a biological and psychological adaptive response of the organism to a situation perceived as a threat, challenge, or constraint, commonly referred to as a stressor.
From a scientific perspective, stress encompasses a series of neurobiological, hormonal, cognitive, and behavioral responses that are mobilized to preserve or restore homeostasis, namely the physiological stability of the internal environment.
The modern scientific concept of stress was largely developed during the twentieth century through the work of Hans Selye.
From a physiological perspective, Selye defined stress as a : nonspecific adaptive response of the organism to any demand placed upon it.
Stress from a Psychological Perspective
From a psychological perspective, stress is understood as a dynamic transaction between an individual and their environment. Stress occurs when an individual appraises a particular situation as exceeding their available coping resources and as potentially threatening to their well-being.
This conceptual framework derives primarily from the work of Richard Lazarus and Susan Folkman, particularly their transactional model of stress and coping.
II. Mechanisms of the Stress Circuit
Fig. 1: Illustration of a Stressful Situation
The image above clearly illustrates a stressful situation triggered by two types of factors:
- The physical stressor
This refers to pain caused by a mechanical injury and detected by mechanical and polymodal nociceptors, as well as free nerve endings.
Within the skin and underlying tissues, there are numerous free nerve endings. Some respond primarily to intense mechanical pressure (mechanical nociceptors), whereas others respond to multiple types of noxious stimuli, including mechanical pressure, extreme heat, and chemical irritation (polymodal nociceptors). These sensory receptors detect tissue injury or potentially damaging stimuli.
Once the alarm signal has been triggered, the electrical signal must travel along the sensory neuron. It is transmitted through two main types of nerve fibers:
- Aδ fibers: relatively large and rapidly conducting fibers that transmit sharp, well-localized, and immediate pain.
- C fibers: thin, slowly conducting fibers that transmit secondary, dull, burning, and more diffuse pain, which may persist after the initial injury.
The signal then travels toward the cell body of the primary sensory neuron, which is located in the dorsal root ganglion (spinal ganglion) (see Fig. 2).
The nociceptive information subsequently enters the spinal cord through the dorsal root, where the primary sensory afferent neurons synapse with second-order neurons, particularly within Rexed laminae I, II, and V. These laminae are anatomically defined layers of the spinal dorsal horn.
Rexed laminae I, II, and V are key regions involved in the reception, processing, and integration of nociceptive signals.
Fig. 2: Neural Mechanisms Underlying the Physical Stress Circuit
The second-order sensory neuron, following synaptic relay within the Rexed laminae of the spinal cord, conveys the nociceptive signal toward higher-order centers. After decussating to the contralateral side of the spinal cord, its axon ascends via the contralateral spinothalamic tract toward supraspinal structures.
Fig. 3: The Spinothalamic Tract
The spinothalamic tract in the medulla is located in the lateral region, in a dorsolateral position, close to the spinal trigeminal nucleus. It is part of the anterolateral system.
Fig. 4: The Spinothalamic Tract and the Anterolateral System in the Medulla
Bulbar Connections
- Collateral projections to the reticular formation
These projections contribute to the spinoreticular pathway, which is involved in the affective and emotional dimensions of pain, with subsequent projections to the intralaminar nuclei of the thalamus. - Connections with the spinal trigeminal nucleus
These connections contribute to the integration of somatic and facial pain. - Contribution to the spinoparabrachial pathway (indirect)
This pathway provides relay connections to autonomic control centers.
The Spinothalamic Tract in the Pons:
Fig. 5: The Spinothalamic Tract in the Pons
Connections at the pontine level
- Pontine reticular formation: modulation of arousal and participation in autonomic responses to pain.
- Periaqueductal gray (PAG): via ascending projections; an indirect connection that contributes to the initiation of descending pain-modulatory mechanisms.
- Parabrachial complex: projections to the hypothalamus, contributing to autonomic responses and the affective component of pain.
The Spinothalamic Tract in the Midbrain
Major Midbrain Connections
- Periaqueductal gray (PAG)
A major center for pain modulation; initiates descending inhibitory pathways and activates the nucleus raphe magnus, leading to spinal inhibition. - Superior colliculus (minor collateral projections)
Involved in orienting reflexes toward nociceptive stimuli. - Midbrain reticular formation
Contributes to arousal and alertness in response to nociceptive stimuli.
Thalamus (Major Relay)
Thalamic Nuclei
- VPL (ventral posterolateral nucleus) → conveys nociceptive information from the body.
- Intralaminar nuclei → involved in the affective and emotional components of pain.
Cerebral Cortex – Conscious Pain Perception
At the cortical level, the primary somatosensory cortex (S1) receives nociceptive information and contributes to the conscious perception of pain, particularly its location and intensity.
Other activated regions:
- Secondary somatosensory cortex (S2) → higher-order processing and integration of somatosensory information.
- Insular cortex → contributes to the subjective awareness of bodily states and the sensory-affective experience of pain.
- Anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) → emotional and affective dimensions of pain, including suffering and distress.
- Amygdala → emotional processing of threat, including fear and defensive responses such as escape or avoidance.
Psychological Stressor: Fear
Fear is a primary survival emotion whose function is to detect potential threats and trigger rapid defensive responses, such as flight, fight, or freezing. In animals such as the gazelle, this response is essential for survival.
Rapid Detection of Threat
Threat detection begins through sensory systems, including:
- Visual system
- Auditory system
- Olfactory system
- Somatosensory system (touch)
The sensory information is then transmitted to the thalamus, which acts as an important relay.
From the thalamus, information can reach the amygdala through two functionally distinct processing routes, as described in the LeDoux model:
-
The fast pathway (“low road”)
Thalamus → AmygdalaThis pathway provides rapid but relatively coarse processing of potential threats. It bypasses detailed cortical analysis and can operate largely outside conscious awareness. Because of its limited sensory resolution, it may generate a false alarm—for example, interpreting a coiled rope as a snake.
-
The slow cortical pathway (“high road”)
Thalamus → Sensory cortex → AmygdalaThis pathway involves more detailed cortical processing before the information reaches the amygdala. It is slower but more precise, allowing conscious evaluation and discrimination of the stimulus—for example, determining whether the apparent “snake” is actually a rope.
Fig. 7: Fear Pathways to the Amygdala
1) Response to a Physical Stressor
The information reaches the hypothalamus through the parabrachial nuclei and/or the amygdala, which initiates the fight-or-flight response.
a) Immediate autonomic response (via the hypothalamus and brainstem)
Activation of the sympathetic nervous system:
tachycardia, Increased blood pressure, vasoconstriction of the abdominal and peripheral arteries, vasodilation of the skeletal muscle arteries, mydriasis (pupillary dilation), bronchodilation, sweating, inhibition of gastrointestinal motility, temporary reduction in urine production, as the body prioritizes vital functions such as the heart and skeletal muscles. Reduced renal blood flow leads to decreased glomerular filtration and, consequently, reduced urine output in the short term. In some cases, an urgent need to urinate may occur as a paradoxical response. This constitutes the “fight-or-flight” response.
Fig. 8: Stimulation of Bone Marrow Stem Cells
Released adrenaline acts on multiple tissues, including the bone marrow. It stimulates hematopoietic stem and progenitor cells to proliferate and differentiate into mature immune cells, which are then mobilized into the circulation. This process contributes to the initiation and amplification of the inflammatory response, as the organism anticipates possible tissue injury or infection and prepares an appropriate immune defense. This mechanism will be discussed in greater detail later in the context of chronic stress.
Fig. 9: The Hypothalamic–Pituitary–Adrenal (HPA) Axis
The HPA axis induces the release of cortisol, which exerts an anti-inflammatory effect during the acute stress response.
2) Response to a Psychological Stressor (Fear)
Fear is a primary survival emotion whose function is to detect danger and trigger rapid defensive responses, such as flight, fight, or freezing. In animals such as gazelles, this response is essential for survival.
Rapid detection of danger:
Danger is detected through the sensory systems, including the visual, auditory, olfactory, and somatosensory systems.
The sensory information reaches the thalamus, which acts as a sensory relay and processing center.
Between the thalamus and the amygdala, there are two transmission pathways, as described in the LeDoux model:
Fig. 10: The Two Fear-Transmission Pathways
- Fast pathway (subconscious):Thalamus → Amygdala: very rapid and coarse; enables an immediate defensive response, such as escape.
- Slow pathway (cortical):Thalamus → Sensory cortex → Amygdala: slower but more precise, allowing detailed analysis of the stimulus.
1. Responses Triggered by the Amygdala
1.1 Immediate Autonomic Response
Via the hypothalamus and brainstem: activation of the sympathetic nervous system, resulting in tachycardia, increased blood pressure, peripheral vasoconstriction, mydriasis, bronchodilation, sweating, and inhibition of gastrointestinal activity.This corresponds to the “fight-or-flight” response.
a) Global Sympathetic Activation
Pathway:
- Amygdala → Central nucleus
- Projection to the lateral hypothalamus
- Activation of medullary sympathetic centers
- Descent to the thoracolumbar spinal cord (T1–L2)
Tachycardia — specific pathway:
Amygdala → Hypothalamus → activation of sympathetic preganglionic neurons (T1–T5) → synapse in the cervical sympathetic ganglia → postganglionic fibers → heart
Neurotransmitter: norepinephrine
Receptors: predominantly β-adrenergic receptors
b) Two Major Types of Receptors Involved:
Vasoconstriction and Vasodilation
Pathway:
Amygdala → Lateral hypothalamus → Spinal sympathetic activation → Postganglionic fibers → Peripheral blood vessels
Neurotransmitter: norepinephrine
Norepinephrine acts primarily on two major types of adrenergic receptors:
-
α1 (alpha-1) receptors → vasoconstriction
Particularly in the arteries supplying the gastrointestinal tract.α1 → Gq protein → ↑ IP₃ → ↑ intracellular Ca²⁺ → smooth muscle contraction → vasoconstriction
-
β2 (beta-2) receptors → vasodilation
Particularly in the blood vessels supplying skeletal muscle.β2 → Gs protein → ↑ cAMP → reduced smooth muscle contraction → relaxation → vasodilation
➡️ Overall result: redistribution of blood flow away from the gastrointestinal tract toward tissues essential for the fight-or-flight response, particularly skeletal muscles.
Mydriasis
Amygdala → Hypothalamus → Sympathetic activation → Preganglionic neurons (T1) → Synapse in the superior cervical ganglion → Postganglionic fibers → Iris dilator muscle
Receptor: α₁-adrenergic receptor
Sweating
A distinctive pathway (a common pitfall!):
Amygdala → Hypothalamus → Sympathetic activation → Postganglionic fibers → Sweat glands
Final neurotransmitter: acetylcholine (ACh)
Receptor: muscarinic cholinergic receptor
Ultra-Summary Table
| Effect | Pathway | Final NT | Receptor |
|---|---|---|---|
| Tachycardia | Sympathetic T1–T5 | Norepinephrine | β₁ |
| Vasoconstriction | Sympathetic | Norepinephrine | α₁ |
| Mydriasis | T1 → Superior cervical ganglion | Norepinephrine | α₁ |
| Sweating | Sympathetic | ACh | Muscarinic |
These medullary nuclei continuously regulate sympathetic tone and also participate in emotional responses through pathways involving the amygdala.
c) RVLM – Rostral Ventrolateral Medulla
Location: Ventrolateral medulla
Role:
- Major center regulating sympathetic tone
- Maintains arterial blood pressure
- Activates spinal sympathetic neurons
Connections:
- Receives projections from the hypothalamus and, indirectly, from the amygdala
- Projects to the intermediolateral cell columns (T1–L2) of the spinal cord
d) NTS – Nucleus of the Solitary Tract
Location: Dorsal medulla
Role:
- Integrates visceral afferent information
- Receives input from baroreceptors and chemoreceptors
- Modulates sympathetic activity, primarily through regulatory mechanisms rather than direct command
e) CVLM – Caudal Ventrolateral Medulla
Location: Caudal ventrolateral medulla
Role:
- Inhibits the RVLM
- Participates in the baroreflex
Classic pitfall:
- CVLM ≠ an active sympathetic center
- Its primary role is inhibitory
f) Medullary Reticular Formation
Role:
- Global regulation of autonomic tone
- Integration between emotional states and autonomic responses
1.2 Hormonal Response
- Hypothalamus → Pituitary gland → Adrenal glands
- Release of adrenaline and cortisol
1.3 Behavioral Response
- Explosive escape response
- Hypervigilance
➡️ Fear is a normal, adaptive, and reversible physiological mechanism.
In summary, this stress response, as a physiological and adaptive mechanism, helps the gazelle mobilize its energy and defensive capacities to an extraordinary degree. It may even turn around and fight back against the predator, potentially injuring it with a powerful horn strike. Once the immediate danger has passed, the gazelle can withdraw and rest, allowing its body to recover from its injuries.
After recovery, two very different outcomes may occur:
- The gazelle has not been traumatized: it resumes a normal life.
- The gazelle has been traumatized: persistent alterations in stress regulation may develop, potentially contributing to various disorders and health problems.
To understand this process, we will examine the system in greater detail.
2. The Mechanism of Emotions
En 1937, dans son article scientifique intitulé “A Proposed Mechanism of Emotion”,Papez cherchait à expliquer le fonctionnement des émotions dans le cerveau. Il a proposé un circuit neuronal fermé, aujourd’hui appelé circuit de Papez, reliant plusieurs structures cérébrales.
Fig. 11: Papez circuit
Although Papez’s model was subsequently modified, particularly with the introduction of the concept of the limbic system, it remains a major historical foundation in neuroscience. We later realized that this system is far more complex and involves numerous nuclei and interconnected structures, allowing us to experience the extraordinary diversity of human emotions and pleasures.
Fig. 12: The Amygdala and Hippocampal Network in the Papez Circuit
In summary, the information reaches all of these nuclei within their respective networks, with the amygdala and hippocampus playing important roles: the amygdala is involved in encoding the emotional value of an experience, whereas the hippocampus records the context and environmental setting associated with the traumatic event. For example, in the case of this gazelle, the entire surrounding environment is unconsciously encoded, whereas the predator itself is consciously perceived and encoded.
The BLA (basolateral amygdala) then stimulates the BNST (bed nucleus of the stria terminalis), which in turn activates the DMH (dorsomedial hypothalamus) and the PVN (paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus). The PVN subsequently acts on the sympathetic nervous system and the HPA axis (see above).
The amygdala is also closely interconnected with the prefrontal cortex (PFC), which normally exerts an inhibitory regulatory influence on the amygdala. Under certain conditions, the amygdala becomes hyperactive and is no longer adequately controlled by the PFC. In such circumstances, the stress response becomes dominant, and the patient may experience severe anxiety.
Fig. 13: The Limbic System
2.1 When and How Fear Becomes Traumatic
What is trauma? Trauma occurs when the threat is extreme, pain and fear are intense, a sense of helplessness is present, and the situation overwhelms the individual’s adaptive capacities. In this context, the attack involving claws and the perception of imminent death could potentially be considered traumatic.
In such situations:
- Abnormal encoding of the traumatic memory
- The amygdala becomes hyperactive and over-encodes fear, strongly associating stimuli with danger.
- The hippocampus is inhibited by cortisol, resulting in impaired encoding of the context (time and place), and producing a fragmented, poorly dated memory.
Result: The brain does not properly categorize the event as something that belongs to the past.
1. Failure of prefrontal cortex regulation
Under normal conditions, the prefrontal cortex (PFC) inhibits the amygdala and provides cognitive reassurance, essentially signaling: “It is over; you are safe; calm down.”
Following trauma, prefrontal activity may decrease, leading to a loss of top-down control, while the amygdala remains hyperactive.
Possible manifestations in the gazelle
a) Hypervigilance
- Excessive reactions to the slightest noise
- Inappropriate or disproportionate flight responses
b) Re-experiencing (animal equivalent)
- Reactivation of fear in response to similar stimuli
- Automatic and maladaptive responses
c) Avoidance
- Abandonment of areas that are actually safe
- Changes in feeding behavior
d) Possible freezing response
- Immobility (freeze)
- Failure or inability to initiate an escape response
Key Difference to Remember
| Normal Fear | PTSD |
|---|---|
| Adaptive | Maladaptive |
| Temporary | Persistent |
| Contextualized | Decontextualized |
| Reversible | Self-perpetuating |
Fundamental Message
PTSD is not simply an excess of fear; it is a survival memory that fails to switch off.
Trauma as Pavlovian Conditioning
Recap: Classical Pavlovian Conditioning
Simple model:
Neutral stimulus (NS) + aversive stimulus (US) → fear response
After repeated pairings or an extremely intense aversive experience, the previously neutral stimulus becomes capable of triggering a fear response on its own.
In trauma, a single exposure may be sufficient.
Trauma = extreme Pavlovian conditioning
Unconditioned stimulus (US): predator attack, pain, threat of death
These stimuli automatically trigger: intense fear, maximal stress, strong autonomic responses
All elements present at the time of the traumatic event can subsequently become triggers or conditioned stimuli (CS), including: smell of the grass, color of the ground, sound of the wind, time of day, bodily sensations (e.g., increased heart rate), type of landscape (hills, streams, grass, flowers, scents of flowers and grass, etc.), other animals, trees.
In short, an almost infinite number of environmental or bodily cues can become associated with the traumatic event. Each of these elements can therefore become an independent trigger, capable of reactivating the fear response even in the absence of the original threat.
The BLA: The Emotional Core of Stress Memory
The BLA receives sensory information (from the thalamus and cortex), contextual signals (from the hippocampus), and cognitive signals (from the prefrontal cortex). It does not simply trigger fear; rather, it associates an event with a strong emotional value (danger, stress, threat). As a result, the BLA acts as an emotional amplifier of memories.
Stress and Memory Encoding: What Happens During Stress
During stress:
Neurochemical activation: release of norepinephrine (from the locus coeruleus) and cortisol (via the HPA axis). The BLA is particularly rich in:
- β-adrenergic receptors (norepinephrine)
- Glucocorticoid receptors (cortisol)
These neuromodulators enhance synaptic activity within the BLA.
Neuroplasticity in the BLA: The Key to Amplification
Synaptic plasticity (LTP)
Within the BLA:
- ↑ Long-term potentiation (LTP)
- ↑ Ca²⁺ influx through NMDA receptors
- Activation of CaMKII, PKA, and MAPK
Stress-associated synapses become stronger, more responsive, and more persistent.
A neutral stimulus associated with stress therefore becomes emotionally charged.
Structural Plasticity
Stress, particularly chronic stress, leads to:
- ↑ dendritic spine density in the BLA
- ↑ dendritic branching
- ↑ intra-amygdala connectivity
The BLA becomes hyperplastic, in contrast to the hippocampus, where stress may reduce plasticity.
1) Long-Term Potentiation (LTP)
LTP is a long-lasting increase in the efficacy of synaptic transmission following repeated and intense stimulation of a synapse. It has been extensively studied in the hippocampus, particularly in relation to declarative memory.
2) Increased Ca²⁺ Influx Through NMDA Receptors
The key mechanism begins at NMDA receptors:
- Glutamate is released by the presynaptic neuron.
- AMPA receptors are activated → postsynaptic depolarization.
- This depolarization relieves the Mg²⁺ block of NMDA receptors.
- NMDA receptors open → substantial Ca²⁺ influx into the cell.
Ca²⁺ acts as the primary trigger for LTP induction.
3) Activation of Intracellular Kinases
The increase in intracellular Ca²⁺ activates several key enzymes:
CaMKII (Calcium/Calmodulin-Dependent Protein Kinase II)
- Directly activated by the Ca²⁺/calmodulin complex
- Phosphorylates AMPA receptors
- Increases their conductance
- Promotes the insertion of additional AMPA receptors into the membrane
This results in rapid strengthening of the synapse, corresponding to the early phase of LTP.
PKA (Protein Kinase A)
- Activated via cAMP
- Contributes to the stabilization of LTP
- Involved in transcriptional changes
MAPK (Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinase)
- Activates transcription factors (e.g., CREB)
- Promotes the synthesis of new proteins
- Required for late-phase LTP (L-LTP)
- Increased number and efficacy of AMPA receptors
- Structural changes, including dendritic spine remodeling
- Long-lasting strengthening of the synapse
Logical Chain Summary
Intense stimulation → AMPA activation → NMDA activation → ↑ Ca²⁺ → activation of CaMKII / PKA / MAPK → ↑ AMPA receptors + structural modifications → LTP (memory)
The Relationship Between Stress and Inflammation
Stress-induced immune responses in the periphery and their underlying mechanisms
Stress-Induced Leukocyte Mobilization from the Bone Marrow
Studies in rodents, primarily using repeated social defeat stress, have shown that stress alters the number, distribution, and properties of leukocytes. In general, chronic stress decreases lymphocytes, such as T cells and B cells, while increasing myeloid cells, such as neutrophils and monocytes, in the blood and bone marrow.
These changes may result from altered leukocyte differentiation and proliferation in the bone marrow, as well as changes in their release into the circulation.
These leukocyte populations do not respond in the same way after cessation of stress. The increase in neutrophils and decrease in B cells persist for several days after the last stress exposure, whereas other leukocyte changes disappear.
Acute stress may induce changes in leukocytes similar to those observed with chronic stress, as a decrease in lymphocytes and an increase in myeloid cells can be detected immediately after a single 2-hour exposure to social defeat stress. However, the effects of acute stress may be less persistent. Twelve hours after a single 2-hour exposure to social defeat stress, only an increase in neutrophils, but not in monocytes, was observed.
These findings indicate that chronic stress induces more persistent leukocyte changes than acute stress, and that the increase in neutrophils persists longer than changes affecting other leukocyte subsets.
Roles of the Autonomic and Neuroendocrine Systems
Stress-induced leukocyte mobilization from the bone marrow is mediated primarily by the autonomic and neuroendocrine systems.
Activation of the sympathetic nervous system (SNS) during stress induces the release of norepinephrine and epinephrine into the blood and tissues. These neurotransmitters activate adrenergic receptors on leukocytes and surrounding cells, such as mesenchymal stem cells in the bone marrow, thereby promoting stress-induced leukocyte mobilization.
Sympathetic activation may be sufficient to produce these effects, as systemic administration of isoproterenol, a non-selective β-adrenergic agonist, decreases lymphocytes and increases monocytes and granulocytes in the bone marrow.
These adrenergic receptors may promote myeloid cell differentiation and proliferation. They may also reduce the expression of C-X-C motif chemokine ligand 12 (CXCL12) by osteoblasts and mesenchymal stem cells. CXCL12 normally contributes to the retention of myeloid cells in the bone marrow through the C-X-C motif chemokine receptor 4 (CXCR4).
In addition, stress activates the hypothalamic–pituitary–adrenal (HPA) axis, increasing circulating glucocorticoid levels.
Glucocorticoids act directly on myeloid and lymphoid cells to suppress inflammatory responses. They also promote the apoptosis of T cells, macrophages, and dendritic cells, thereby inhibiting immune responses.
However, following chronic stress, monocytes and macrophages develop glucocorticoid resistance, or reduced glucocorticoid sensitivity, in both mice and humans. This glucocorticoid resistance can consequently disinhibit inflammatory responses.
At the same time, glucocorticoids can promote innate immune responses to stress by suppressing the CXCL12–CXCR4 pathway, which normally retains myeloid cells in the bone marrow, and by increasing cytokine release from these cells. These effects were prevented by metyrapone, an inhibitor of glucocorticoid synthesis.
Roles of Cytokines and Chemokines
Stress affects the expression of various cytokines and chemokines in the bone marrow and circulation, likely contributing to stress-induced immune responses. Distinct but overlapping cytokine pathways regulate the proliferation and mobilization of neutrophils and monocytes.
G-CSF (Granulocyte Colony-Stimulating Factor) generally promotes neutrophil proliferation and mobilization, although its effects are not exclusively restricted to neutrophils. G-CSF is thought to locally activate the sympathetic nervous system within the bone marrow, thereby promoting neutrophil mobilization. CXCL1/2 and their receptor CXCR2 also stimulate neutrophil mobilization.
M-CSF (Macrophage Colony-Stimulating Factor) and GM-CSF (Granulocyte-Macrophage Colony-Stimulating Factor) promote monocyte proliferation and mobilization. Similarly, CCL2 (C-C motif chemokine ligand 2), also known as monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP-1), and its receptor CCR2 (C-C chemokine receptor type 2) stimulate monocyte mobilization.
Stress increases circulating levels of G-CSF. Because IL-17 promotes neutrophil mobilization through G-CSF secretion, restraint stress has been shown to increase the number of aged neutrophils through an IL-17A-dependent mechanism, presumably involving intestinal T helper 17 (Th17) cells. Because this neutrophil mobilization depends on segmented filamentous bacteria (SFB) in the gut, IL-17A may provide a mechanistic link between the gut microbiota and the innate immune response to stress.
Indeed, stress alters the gut microbiota, which is associated with both stress susceptibility and stress-related responses. Although the underlying mechanisms remain incompletely understood, the gut microbiota is regulated by multiple pathways, including the vagus nerve, glucocorticoids, leukocytes, and secreted cytokines.
However, the effects of stress on circulating IL-17 levels vary across studies, and it remains to be established whether IL-17A directly mediates stress-induced neutrophil mobilization.
In addition, stress increases circulating and brain levels of CXCL2 and CCL2. The increase in CCL2 is not essential for stress-induced monocyte mobilization into the circulation, since CCR2 deficiency does not prevent this mobilization. In contrast, the increase in CCL2 within the brain is critical for stress-induced monocyte infiltration into the central nervous system.
Effects of Stress on the Immune System Through Multiple Organs
Stress can affect the spleen and lymph nodes, at least in part through sympathetic nervous system projections. Acute stress is thought to induce norepinephrine release from sympathetic nerve terminals in the spleen, which acts on choline acetyltransferase-positive (ChAT⁺) T lymphocytes via β2-adrenergic receptors. These splenic T cells subsequently release acetylcholine, thereby inhibiting the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines by macrophages. This anti-inflammatory pathway is beneficial in various models of inflammatory disease, including ischemic acute kidney injury, and can be activated by vagal pathways connected to the splenic sympathetic nerves.
Chronic stress, such as repeated foot-shock stress or restraint stress, increases the proportion of CD4⁺ T cells exhibiting reduced glycolysis and oxidative phosphorylation, together with increased mitochondrial fission, in the spleen and lymph nodes. This metabolic remodeling appears to contribute to stress-induced anxiety-like behavior.
Chronic stress can also increase splenic plasma cells and enhance antibody-dependent immune responses by activating stress-related brain regions, including the central nucleus of the amygdala (CeA) and the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus (PVN), as well as the splenic nerves. However, this enhancement of humoral responses occurs only under mild stress conditions that do not trigger glucocorticoid release. It therefore does not occur during restraint stress accompanied by substantial glucocorticoid secretion. Thus, humoral immunity is differentially regulated depending on the nature and intensity of the stressor.
Stress can also affect non-immune peripheral organs. Acute stress, for example, may increase IL-6 release from brown adipocytes through direct sympathetic signaling.
Collectively, the interactions among multiple organs—including the bone marrow, spleen, gut, and brown adipose tissue—shape stress-induced innate and adaptive immune responses in a manner that depends strongly on the specific conditions and intensity of stress.
Roles of Bone Marrow-Derived Myeloid Cells
The stress-induced immune responses described above can influence neuronal function and contribute to stress-induced behavioral changes. Multiple barriers separate the brain from the peripheral immune system, and leukocytes are rarely present within the healthy brain parenchyma. Nevertheless, myeloid cells, particularly monocytes, are thought to infiltrate the perivascular spaces of the brain, especially during chronic stress.
Circulating monocytes can adhere to brain vascular endothelial cells and subsequently migrate into the perivascular space. In parallel, an elegant skull transplantation study demonstrated a direct pathway by which bone marrow-derived myeloid cells can migrate from the skull bone marrow to the dura mater, thereby bypassing entry into the circulation.
However, dural myeloid cells would still have to cross additional anatomical barriers—the arachnoid and pia mater—to reach the brain parenchyma.
Repeated social defeat stress increases the number of perivascular monocytes in a CCR2-dependent manner. CCL2, a ligand for CCR2, has been reported to increase in microglia following repeated social defeat stress, suggesting that microglia-derived CCL2 recruits circulating monocytes into the perivascular compartment through CCR2 signaling.
In CCR2-deficient mice, both stress-induced anxiety-like behavior and the associated infiltration of monocytes into the brain are attenuated. These findings suggest that blood-borne monocytes may contribute to the anxiogenic effects of chronic stress.
Repeated social defeat stress also mobilizes neutrophils into the circulation, and this increase persists for a longer period after cessation of stress than the corresponding increase in monocytes. Notably, stress-induced neutrophil mobilization is more pronounced in BALB/c mice than in C57BL/6N mice.
Because BALB/c mice are generally more susceptible to stress than C57BL/6N mice, stress-induced neutrophil mobilization may contribute to genetically determined differences in stress susceptibility.
Roles of Circulating Cytokines
Stress-mobilized myeloid cells appear to influence neuronal function through the secretion of cytokines. IL-6 is one such cytokine, as transplantation of bone marrow from IL-6-deficient mice reduces depressive-like behavior. Notably, a single 10-minute exposure to social defeat stress increases circulating IL-6 levels before the development of depressive-like behavior. This increase in IL-6 is greater in mice that subsequently develop depressive-like behavior following repeated stress (susceptible mice) than in those that do not (resilient mice).
Thus, pre-existing variability in stress-induced IL-6 release by leukocytes may contribute to individual differences in stress susceptibility. Circulating IL-6 appears to gain access to the brain parenchyma across the blood–brain barrier (BBB), as repeated social defeat stress disrupts BBB integrity and reduces claudin-5, a key tight-junction protein expressed by endothelial cells of the cerebral vasculature.
IL-1β and its receptor, interleukin-1 receptor type I (IL-1RI), are also involved in stress-induced depressive- and anxiety-like behaviors. Leukocyte-derived IL-1β appears to be critical for stress-induced anxiety, as transplantation of bone marrow from caspase-1-deficient mice—caspase-1 being an enzyme responsible for the maturation of IL-1β—abolished this behavioral alteration (McKim et al., 2018).
Leukocyte-derived IL-1β may act on IL-1RI expressed by the cerebral vasculature to produce its anxiogenic effects. This is supported by the finding that endothelial cell-specific deletion of IL-1RI attenuates stress-induced anxiety-like behavior.
These findings illustrate that leukocyte-derived cytokines can influence neuronal function through multiple pathways, both directly and indirectly, thereby providing an important mechanistic link between peripheral immune activation and stress-induced changes in brain function and behavior (Fig. 2).
As described above, stress also increases CD4⁺ T lymphocytes exhibiting metabolic remodeling in the spleen and lymph nodes. CD4⁺ T cells are essential for chronic stress-induced anxiety-like behavior, as demonstrated by the loss of this phenotype following antibody-mediated depletion of CD4⁺ T cells, as well as by genetic deletion of Rag1 (Fan et al., 2019).
Adoptive transfer experiments revealed that naïve CD4⁺ T cells from stressed mice are sufficient to restore anxiety-like behavior in Rag1 knockout mice, suggesting that adaptive immune cells may exert non-conventional effects on brain function and behavior.
Stress-induced mitochondrial fission in CD4⁺ T cells may contribute to anxiety-like behavior, since genetically induced mitochondrial fission in these cells produces an anxiety-like phenotype even in the absence of stress. The anxiogenic effect of CD4⁺ T cells exhibiting mitochondrial fission depends on purine nucleoside phosphorylase 2 (PNP2) within the xanthine oxidase pathway, implicating abnormal purine metabolism in this behavioral effect.
Immune cells, including macrophages and tissue-resident lymphocytes, are also present around the anatomical barriers separating the brain from the periphery and may contribute to neuroinflammation. These macrophages are referred to as CNS-associated macrophages (CAMs) and include perivascular, meningeal, and choroid plexus macrophages.
Recent evidence indicates that meningeal γδ T cells regulate anxiety-like behavior through IL-17A signaling in prefrontal neurons.
However, it remains to be determined whether stress alters the function of meningeal and choroid plexus macrophages, as well as resident lymphocyte populations, and whether these immune cells contribute to stress-induced neuronal dysfunction.
The Relationship Between Stress and the Gut
Stress activates two major systems, together with important autonomic and intracellular signaling pathways.
A) HPA Axis (Hypothalamic–Pituitary–Adrenal Axis)
A1) Activation of the hypothalamus
Stress stimulates the hypothalamus, which secretes CRH (corticotropin-releasing hormone). CRH then stimulates the pituitary gland, which in turn secretes ACTH (adrenocorticotropic hormone).
A2) Activation of the adrenal glands
ACTH acts on the adrenal glands, promoting the release of cortisol into the circulation.
Cortisol modulates immune function, metabolism, and intestinal barrier integrity.
B) Peripheral Intestinal Signals
Peripheral CRH acts on enteric neurons, intestinal epithelial cells, and immune cells, including mast cells.
Activation of mast cells induces degranulation, resulting in the release of inflammatory mediators such as:
- TNF-α
- IL-1β
- Tryptase
- Histamine
These mediators can directly disrupt intestinal barrier integrity, thereby increasing intestinal permeability.
C) Autonomic Nervous System
Stress induces autonomic imbalance characterized by:
- ↓ Parasympathetic tone (vagal activity)
- ↑ Sympathetic tone
The net result of the initial activation phase is the development of intestinal inflammation and barrier dysfunction.
D) Intracellular Signaling in Enterocytes
Molecular Cascade — Pathway 1: Gq/11–PLCβ–IP₃/DAG Pathway
1. Activation of Gq/11
A ligand binds to a G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR), leading to activation of the Gq/11 protein.
2. Activation of phospholipase C-β (PLCβ)
The α-subunit of Gq activates phospholipase C-β (PLCβ).
3. Hydrolysis of PIP₂
PLCβ cleaves phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate (PIP₂) into two second messengers:
- IP₃ (inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate)
- DAG (diacylglycerol)
4. Action of IP₃
IP₃ diffuses through the cytosol and binds to IP₃ receptors on the endoplasmic reticulum, triggering the release of Ca²⁺ into the cytoplasm.
5. Downstream consequences
The increase in intracellular Ca²⁺ activates several calcium-dependent proteins, including calmodulin and myosin light-chain kinase (MLCK).
At the same time, DAG, together with Ca²⁺, activates protein kinase C (PKC).
Summary
GPCR → Gq/11 → PLCβ → PIP₂ → IP₃ + DAG → ↑ intracellular Ca²⁺ + PKC activation
This pathway is particularly relevant to enterocyte signaling and intestinal barrier regulation, because Ca²⁺-dependent activation of MLCK can promote contraction of the perijunctional actomyosin ring and thereby contribute to tight-junction remodeling and increased intestinal permeability.
Pathway 2: NF-κB Activation
The activation of NF-κB (Nuclear Factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells) is one of the most important molecular mechanisms underlying innate immunity, inflammation, cell survival, and numerous human diseases. In modern cell biology, NF-κB is often regarded as a “master regulator” of the inflammatory response.
NF-κB is not a single protein but rather a family of transcription factors.
In mammals, the NF-κB family comprises five proteins:
| Protein | Gene |
|---|---|
| RelA (p65) | RELA |
| RelB | RELB |
| c-Rel | REL |
| p50 | NFKB1 |
| p52 | NFKB2 |
These proteins share a common Rel homology domain (RHD), which mediates DNA binding, dimerization, and interaction with IκB inhibitors.
NF-κB functions as either homodimers or heterodimers. The most common and prototypical inflammatory complex is p50/RelA (p65), which mediates a large proportion of canonical inflammatory responses.
Basal State: NF-κB Is Inactive
In an unstimulated cell, NF-κB is retained in the cytoplasm through its association with inhibitory proteins:
- IκBα
- IκBβ
- IκBε
These inhibitors mask:
- the nuclear localization signal (NLS)
- the DNA-binding domain
Thus:
NF-κB + IκB
↓
Cytoplasmic retention
↓
No inflammatory gene transcription
Inflammatory activity is therefore maintained under tight control.
Why Is NF-κB Activated?
The organism must respond rapidly to a wide range of stimuli, including:
- Infections: bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites
- Cellular stress: UV radiation, reactive oxygen species (ROS), hypoxia, and DNA damage
- Pro-inflammatory cytokines: TNF-α and IL-1β
- Immune receptors: TLRs (Toll-like receptors), NOD-like receptors, BCRs, and TCRs
These signaling pathways converge on NF-κB activation, resulting in the transcription of genes involved in inflammation, immune responses, cell survival, and tissue remodeling.
1. Canonical NF-κB Pathway
The canonical pathway is the best-characterized and most important NF-κB signaling pathway.
It can be activated by TNF-α, IL-1β, bacterial LPS, TLR signaling, and oxidative stress, among other stimuli.
Step 1: Receptor Activation
For example, TNF-α binds to TNFR1 (tumor necrosis factor receptor 1).
TNF-α → TNFR1
Step 2: Recruitment of Adaptor Proteins
Receptor activation promotes the formation of a signaling complex involving adaptor proteins such as:
- TRADD
- TRAF2
- RIPK1
These proteins transmit the signal downstream toward the NF-κB pathway.
Step 3: Activation of the IKK Complex
This represents a critical step in the pathway.
The IKK (IκB kinase) complex consists of:
| Subunit | Function |
|---|---|
| IKKα | Kinase |
| IKKβ | Kinase |
| NEMO (IKKγ) | Regulatory/scaffold subunit |
The inflammatory signal is therefore transmitted to the IKK complex.
Inflammatory signal
↓
IKK complex activation
Step 4: Phosphorylation of IκBα
Activated IKKβ phosphorylates IκBα at Ser32 and Ser36.
IκBα
↓
Phosphorylation at Ser32/Ser36
Step 5: Ubiquitination
Phosphorylated IκBα is recognized by the SCF^β-TrCP E3 ubiquitin ligase complex, which promotes the attachment of K48-linked polyubiquitin chains.
IκBα
↓
Phosphorylation
↓
Recognition by SCF^β-TrCP
↓
K48-linked polyubiquitination
Role of Calcium (Ca²⁺)
Ca²⁺ binds to calmodulin, leading to the activation of myosin light-chain kinase (MLCK).
Final outcome:
Activation and increased expression of MLCK
3. Function of MLCK
Key reaction:
MLCK catalyzes the phosphorylation of the myosin light chain (MLC):
MLC + ATP → phosphorylated MLC (MLC-P)
Mechanical consequence
Under basal conditions / without stress:
- Low MLC phosphorylation
- Stable actin cytoskeleton
- Intact tight junctions
Under stress conditions:
- ↑ MLC phosphorylation
- Increased contraction of the actin–myosin cytoskeleton
- Mechanical tension is exerted on the tight junctions
- This cytoskeletal contraction pulls on the tight junctions, contributing to their disruption and increased intestinal permeability.
4. Disorganization of Tight Junctions
Normal structure
Key proteins include:
- Claudins
- Occludin
- ZO-1 / ZO-2
These proteins maintain the integrity and sealing of the intestinal epithelial barrier between adjacent cells.
Following MLCK activation
Four major effects:
- Actomyosin contraction
- Dissociation of ZO-1 from the junctional complex
- Internalization of occludin
- Reorganization of claudins
Result:
Opening of the paracellular spaces between epithelial cells
↑ Paracellular permeability
5. Immunological Consequences
Once the intestinal barrier becomes compromised, several luminal molecules can cross the epithelial barrier, including:
- LPS (lipopolysaccharide)
- Peptidoglycans
- Dietary antigens
Immune activation
These microbial products can be recognized by immune cells, including macrophages, through pattern-recognition receptors such as: TLR4 (Toll-like receptor 4)
Cytokine production
This can promote the production of pro-inflammatory cytokines, including:
- TNF-α
- IL-6
- IL-1β
Consequences
Inflammation, which may be:
- Local, within the intestine
- Systemic, when inflammatory mediators enter the circulation
6. Self-Sustaining Feedback Loop — The Vicious Cycle
The system can become self-amplifying:
1. Stress
↓
2. Mast-cell activation
↓
3. ↑ Pro-inflammatory cytokines
4. ↑ MLCK activation/expression
↓
5. ↑ Intestinal permeability
↓
6. Increased translocation of microbial products and luminal antigens
↓
7. ↑ Inflammation
This inflammatory state can further enhance stress responsiveness and perpetuate the cycle.
Contribution of the gut microbiota
- Dysbiosis → disruption of the microbial ecosystem
- ↓ Butyrate → loss of an important intestinal barrier–supporting metabolite
These changes may further aggravate barrier dysfunction and inflammation.
7. Fine Regulation of MLCK
Transcriptional regulation
Transcription factors implicated in the regulation of MLCK expression include:
- NF-κB
- AP-1
- C/EBPβ
Post-translational regulation
MLCK activity can also be modulated through:
- Phosphorylation by protein kinases, including PKC and MAPK-related pathways
- Interactions with the cytoskeleton and junctional complexes
Modulators
Potential protective/modulatory factors:
- Butyrate
- Probiotics
- AMPK activation
- Antioxidants, such as N-acetylcysteine
Factors promoting MLCK activation or barrier dysfunction:
- TNF-α
- LPS
- Oxidative stress
- Dysbiosis
8. Experimental Evidence
MLCK inhibition
The MLCK inhibitor ML-7 has been used experimentally to inhibit MLCK activity and can reduce stress- or inflammation-associated increases in intestinal permeability.
Genetic models
Experimental models indicate that:
- MLCK deficiency or inhibition → increased resistance to epithelial hyperpermeability
- MLCK overexpression/activation → increased intestinal permeability
Stress models
Experimental stress paradigms have been associated with:
- ↑ MLCK
- ↑ MLC phosphorylation
- ↑ Intestinal permeability
These effects can be attenuated when MLCK activity is inhibited, supporting a causal role for the MLCK–MLC pathway in epithelial barrier regulation.
Overall Conclusion
MLCK acts as a key biomechanical switch linking extracellular signals to changes in intestinal epithelial barrier function.
It translates:
Psychological and inflammatory signals
↓
Ca²⁺/calmodulin signaling
↓
MLCK activation
↓
MLC phosphorylation
↓
Actomyosin contraction
↓
Tight-junction remodeling
↓
Increased intestinal permeability
Ultra-Synthetic Summary
Stress → CRH + inflammatory signals → ↑ Ca²⁺ → calmodulin → MLCK → MLC phosphorylation → actomyosin contraction → tight-junction opening/remodeling → ↑ intestinal permeability → immune activation/inflammation → vicious cycle
Clinical relevance
This mechanism has been implicated in the pathophysiology of:
- Irritable bowel syndrome (IBS)
- Inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD)
- Metabolic disorders
- Neuropsychiatric disorders, potentially through the gut–brain axis
Important scientific nuance: MLCK is best viewed as one important regulatory pathway among several mechanisms controlling intestinal barrier integrity; the strength and relevance of each mechanism vary according to the disease and experimental model.





















